| United States Agency for International Development | |
|---|---|
| Agency overview | |
| Formed | November 3, 1961 |
| Preceding agency | International Cooperation Administration |
| Headquarters | Washington, D.C. |
| Employees | 1,759 (2006) |
| Agency executives | Rajiv Shah, Administrator Donald Steinberg, Deputy Administrator Sean Carroll, Chief Operating Officer |
| Website | |
| usaid.gov | |
| Footnotes | |
| [1][2] | |
The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is the United States federal government agency primarily responsible for administering civilian foreign aid. President John F. Kennedy created USAID in 1961 by executive order to implement development assistance programs in the areas authorized by the Congress in the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961.[3] The Congress updates this authorization through annual funds appropriation acts, and other legislation. Although technically an independent federal agency, USAID operates subject to the foreign policy guidance of the President, Secretary of State, and the National Security Council.[4] USAID's Administrator works under the direct authority and foreign policy guidance of the Secretary of State. [5]
USAID seeks to "extend a helping hand to those people overseas struggling to make a better life, recover from a disaster or striving to live in a free and democratic country."[6] USAID's stated goals include providing "economic, development and humanitarian assistance around the world in support of the foreign policy goals of the United States".[7] It operates in Sub-Saharan Africa; Asia and the Near East, Latin America and the Caribbean, Europe, and Eurasia.
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The U.S. Government has long provided foreign assistance for specific needs. In 1915, the Commission for Relief of Belgium headed by Herbert Hoover prevented starvation in Belgium after the German invasion.
After 1945, the USG institutionalized its foreign assistance with the creation of the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA). The ECA implemented the European Recovery Program championed by Secretary of State George Marshall (the "Marshall Plan") to help rebuild war-torn Western Europe.[8]
The Marshall Plan was cut short on June 30, 1951 to re-direct foreign aid in light of the Korean War. On October 31, 1951, Congress passed the first Mutual Security Act and created the Mutual Security Agency (MSA) to manage foreign assistance. In 1953 at the end of the Korean War, the Foreign Operations Administration (FOA) was established as an independent government agency outside the Department of State to consolidate economic and technical assistance on a world-wide basis. Its responsibilities were merged into the International Cooperation Administration (ICA) one year later.
In 1961, the Congress approved the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 at President Kennedy's initiative, merging the ICA and other foreign aid entities into USAID as a new agency dedicated to development as a long-term effort requiring country-by-country planning and a commitment of resources on a multi-year basis.
The organizational structure of U.S. civilian foreign assistance continues to evolve.
During the early 1970s, foreign aid became one of the focal points in Legislative-Executive differences over the Vietnam War.[9] In September 1970, President Nixon proposed abolishing USAID and replacing it with three new institutions: one for development loans, one for technical assistance and research, and one for trade, investment and financial policy. The Congress did not act on the proposal and in 1973, Congress adopted a USAID proposal for "New Directions" in foreign aid. By amending the Foreign Assistance Act, the Congress provided that U.S. aid should emphasize "Basic Human Needs": food and nutrition; population planning and health; and education and human resources development. President Nixon signed the "New Directions" act into law (PL 93-189) in December 1973. In 1978, legislation drafted at the request of Senator Hubert Humphrey was introduced to create a Cabinet-level International Development Cooperation Agency (IDCA). IDCA's intended role was to supervise USAID in place of the State Department. However, although IDCA was established by Executive Order in September, 1979, it did not in practice separate USAID from the State Department.[8]
In 1995, legislation to abolish USAID was introduced once again, this time by Senator Jesse Helms, the Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. He wanted to replace it with a grant-making foundation.[10] Although the House of Representatives passed a bill abolishing USAID, the measure did not become law.[11] In order to gain Congressional cooperation for his foreign affairs agenda in 1997, President Clinton adopted a State Department proposal to integrate more foreign affairs agencies into the Department. The "Foreign Affairs Agencies Consolidation Act of 1998" (Division G of PL 105-277), in addition to abolishing the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency and the United States Information Agency (which formerly maintained American libraries overseas), also abolished IDCA, making USAID more formally dependent on State. In addition, the law provided the President the options of abolishing USAID or integrating its ten-person press office into the State Department. However, USAID was to continue to manage the budget for development.[11]
In 2003, President Bush established PEPFAR, the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, putting USAID's HIV/AIDS programs under the direction of the State Department's new Office of the Global AIDS Coordinator.[12] Then, in 2004, the Bush Administration created the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) as a new foreign aid agency to provide financial assistance to a limited number of countries selected for good performance in socioeconomic development.[13] The MCC also finances some USAID-administered development assistance projects.
In January 2006, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice created the Office of the Director of U.S. Foreign Assistance ('F') within the State Department. F's purpose is to ensure that foreign assistance is used as much as possible to meet foreign policy objectives.[14] Under a Director with the rank of Deputy Secretary, F integrated foreign assistance planning and resource management across State and USAID, directing all USAID offices' budgets according to a detailed "Standardized Program Structure" comprising hundreds of "Program Sub-Elements." USAID accordingly closed its office responsible for overall budgeting and development policy..
The following year, USAID launched the "Development Leadership Initiative" to reverse the precipitous decline in USAID's Foreign Service Officer staffing, which had fallen to fewer than 1,000 worldwide.[15] USAID's goal is to double the number of Foreign Service Officers by 2012.[16] (USAID's total U.S. staff under career-length contracts, including Civil Service employees, started in 1962 at about 8,600 and was about 2,900 in 2009.)
On September 22, 2010, President Barack Obama signed a classified Presidential Policy Determination (PPD) on Global Development. As described by an unclassified fact sheet, the PD promises to elevate the role of development assistance within U.S. policy and rebuild "USAID as the U.S. Government’s lead development agency." It also establishes an Interagency Policy Committee on Global Development led by the National Security Staff and adds to U.S. development efforts an emphasis on innovation.[17] A few months later, on December 21, 2010, Secretary of State Clinton released the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review (QDDR). The QDDR reaffirms the plan to re-build USAID's Foreign Service staffing while also emphasizing the increased role that staff from the State Department and domestic agencies will play in implementing U.S. assistance. In addition, it lays out a program for a future transfer of health sector assistance back from the State Department to USAID.[18]
Consistent with this evolving policy environment, USAID re-created in mid-2010 a development planning office, the Bureau of Policy, Planning, and Learning,[19] and on November 23, 2010, announced the creation of a new Bureau for Food Security[20] to lead the implementation of President Obama's Feed the Future Initiative, which was formerly managed by the State Department.
USAID is organized around its headquarters in Washington, DC, and resident offices in developing countries ("missions").[21]
USAID plans its work around individual country development programs tailored to the recipient countries. USAID missions reside in over fifty developing countries, consulting with each country's government and non-governmental organizations to determine which of their programs will receive USAID's assistance. As part of this process, USAID missions conduct socioeconomic analysis, design projects, award contracts and grants, administer projects (including evaluation and reporting), and manage flows of funds.
As countries develop and need less assistance, USAID shrinks and ultimately closes its resident missions. Since USAID's founding in 1961, it has closed its missions in a number of countries including South Korea, Turkey, Tunisia, and Costa Rica.
USAID missions are led by Mission Directors and are staffed both by USAID Foreign Service Officers and by development professionals from the country itself, with the host-country professionals forming a majority of the staff. The length of a foreign-service "tour" in most countries is four years, to give U.S. staff the opportunity to develop in-depth knowledge about the country. (Shorter tours of one or two years are permitted in countries of exceptional hardship or danger.)
Assistance projects in each country are authorized by the Mission Director under the direction of the U.S. Ambassador, USAID and State Department headquarters, and the Congress. The resident USAID mission administers and evaluates the assistance.
USAID's country programs are supported by USAID's headquarters in Washington, D.C., where about half of USAID's Foreign Service Officers work on rotation from foreign assignments, alongside USAID's Civil Service staff and top leadership.
USAID is headed by an Administrator appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The current USAID Administrator is Rajiv Shah, appointed by President Barack Obama.
USAID's headquarters in Washington, D.C. is organized into "Bureaus" covering geographical areas, development subject areas, and administrative functions. Each Bureau is headed by an Assistant Administrator appointed by the President.
Independent oversight of USAID activities is provided by its Office of Inspector General. USAID OIG conducts criminal and civil investigations, financial and performance audits, reviews, inspections, and evaluations of USAID activities around the world.
USAID's global "direct-hire" staff—those with career contracts—includes Civil Service staff in Washington as well as U.S. Foreign Service Officers. The size of this staff was about 2,900 in 2009. An additional 400 U.S. staff work under contracts for shorter periods, typically two-to-three years. (By comparison, the State Department's U.S. workforce currently numbers about 19,000.)
USAID's host-country staff, who normally receive one-year contracts that are renewed annually, comprised fifty-seven percent of the Agency's global workforce in 2009.[23]
USAID Foreign Service Officers, who currently number about 1,700 (compared to 13,000 in the State Department), are selected competitively for specific job openings on the basis of academic qualifications and experience in development programs.[24][25]
Among USG agencies, USAID has preeminent ability to administer programs in low-income countries through its decentralized network of resident field missions, making the Agency essential for managing USG programs in low-income countries. These USG programs serve a range of purposes.[26]
The U.S. Government's earliest foreign aid programs provided relief in crises created by war. In 1915, USG assistance through the Commission for Relief of Belgium headed by Herbert Hoover prevented starvation in Belgium after the German invasion. After 1945, the European Recovery Program championed by Secretary of State George Marshall (the "Marshall Plan") helped rebuild war-torn Western Europe. In our era, USAID leads USG relief efforts after wars and natural disasters through its Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance. Private U.S. relief contributions work through charitable NGOs. The U.S. military also plays a major role in disaster relief overseas.
After 1945, many newly independent countries needed assistance to relieve the chronic deprivation afflicting their low-income populations. Since its founding in 1961, USAID has continuously provided poverty relief in many forms, including assistance to public health and education services targeted at the poorest. USAID has also helped manage agricultural commodity assistance provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In addition, USAID provides funding to NGOs to supplement private donations in relieving chronic poverty.
Technical cooperation between nations is essential for addressing a range of cross-border interests like communicable diseases, environmental issues, trade and investment cooperation, safety standards for traded products, money laundering, and so forth. The USG has specialized agencies dealing with such areas, such as the Centers for Disease Control and the Environmental Protection Agency. USAID's unique ability to administer programs in low-income countries supports all USG civilian agencies' work on these vital global concerns.
To support U.S. geopolitical interests, USAID is often called upon to administer exceptional financial grants to allies. Also, when U.S. troops are in the field, USAID can supplement the "Civil Affairs" programs that the U.S. military conducts to win the friendship of local populations and thus to undermine insurgent support. In these circumstances, USAID may be directed by specially appointed diplomatic officials of the State Department, as in Afghanistan and Pakistan at present. USAID can also be called upon to support projects of U.S. constituents that have exceptional interest.
When President Kennedy was still a Senator, his advisors persuaded him that low-income nations could achieve self-sustaining socioeconomic development if they improved management of their own resources. This became Kennedy's fundamental idea when as President he created USAID. USAID's assistance for socioeconomic development centers on providing technical advice, training, scholarships, commodities, and financial assistance. Other USG agencies and NGOs also participate in these efforts.
Since 1991 USAID has been providing environment assistance to up to 45 countries.[27] As a federal agency, USAID[28] must abide by the United States' environmental regulation laws. This ensures that programs sponsored by USAID should be at once economically and environmentally sustainable. USAID focuses on ensuring the protection of world resources that are currently most threatened and threatening for future generations. These resources include land and water and forests. USAID also focuses on managing and preparing people for the risks associated with global climate change.[29]
USAID uses capacity building to address climate change in developing countries. Capacity building involves raising awareness about the impending threats caused by climate change. It also involves education, outreach and technical skills training as well as workshops that teach about clean energy, and sustainable agriculture.
USAID uses a capacity building technique because they have found that directly involved peoples carry out the most successful environmental campaigns. The direct involvement of trained stakeholders; means that projects will be continued even after USAID’s direct representatives have left.[30]
Programs of the six types above frequently reinforce one another. For example, the Foreign Assistance Act requires USAID to use funds appropriated for geopolitical purposes ("Economic Support Funds") to support socio-economic development to the maximum extent possible.
USAID delivers foreign aid in two fundamentally different ways: technical assistance and financial assistance.[31]
Technical assistance includes technical advice, training, scholarships, construction, and commodities, which are contracted or procured by USAID and provided in-kind to recipients.
The various forms of technical assistance are frequently coordinated as packages to support the institutional development programs of developing country leaders.
Financial assistance supplies cash to developing country organizations to supplement their budgets. USAID also provides financial assistance to local and international NGOs who in turn give technical assistance in developing countries.
In recent years, the USG has increased its emphasis on financial assistance in place of technical assistance. In 2004, the Bush Administration created the Millennium Challenge Corporation as a new foreign aid agency that is mainly restricted to providing financial assistance. In 2009, the Obama Administration initiated a major realignment of USAID's own programs to emphasize financial assistance, referring to it as "government-to-government" or "G2G" assistance.
Under Dr. Rajiv Shah's leadership, the agency has embarked on an ambitious reform agenda called USAID Forward.[32] The reform agenda aims to change the way the Agency does business-with new partnerships, an emphasis on innovation and a relentless focus on results. It provides USAID the opportunity to transform its agency and unleash its full potential to achieve high-impact development. The USAID Forward[33] package includes the following reforms in key areas: implementation and procurement reform, talent management, rebuilding policy capacity, strengthening monitoring and evaluation, rebuilding budget management, science and technology, and innovation.
| Nation | Billions of Dollars |
|---|---|
| Afghanistan | 2.75 |
| Pakistan | 1.35 |
| Haiti | .70 |
| Israel | .59 |
| Kenya | .50 |
| Sudan | .46 |
| West Bank/Gaza | .38 |
| Jordan | .36 |
| Ethiopia | .35 |
| South Africa | .34 |
| Georgia | .33 |
| Egypt | .32 |
| Tanzania | .31 |
| Nigeria | .29 |
| Uganda | .26 |
| Indonesia | .26 |
| Mozambique | .23 |
| Liberia | .22 |
| Colombia | .22 |
| Iraq | .22 |
The U.S. Government's 150 Account funds the budgets of all International Affairs programs and operations for civilian agencies, including USAID. In FY 2009, the Bush Administration's request for the International Affairs Budget for the Department of State, USAID, and other foreign affairs agencies totaled approximately $39.5 billion, including $26.1 billion for Foreign Operations and Related Agencies, $11.2 billion for Department of State, and $2.2 billion for Other International Affairs.
The request under the FY2009 Foreign Operations budget, Foreign Operations and Related Agencies was:
At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, most of the world's governments adopted a program for action under the auspices of the United Nations Agenda 21, which included an Official Development Assistance (ODA) aid target of 0.7% of gross national product (GNP) for rich nations, specified as roughly 22 members of the OECD and known as the Development Assistance Committee (DAC). The United States never agreed to this target but remains – in real terms – the world's largest provider of official development assistance. However, relative to its economy, the U.S. is the second lowest provider with a 0.17% of GNI in aid.[37] Only Greece, among the DAC countries, provides a lower percentage of GNI in the form of aid.[38]
According to the Development Assistance Committee of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (DAC/OECD), the United States remains the largest donor of "official development assistance" at $23.53 billion in 2006. DAC/OECD reports that the next largest donor was the United Kingdom ($12.46b). The UK was followed (in rank order) by Japan ($11.19b), France ($10.60b), Germany ($10.43b), Netherlands ($5.45b), Sweden ($3.95b), Spain ($3.81b), Canada ($3.68b), Italy ($3.64b), Norway ($2.95b), Denmark ($2.24b), Australia ($2.12b), Belgium ($1.98b), Switzerland ($1.65b), Austria ($1.50b), Ireland ($1.02b), Finland ($0.83b), Greece ($0.42b), Portugal ($0.40b), Luxembourg ($0.29b) and New Zealand ($0.26b).[39]
USAID contributed to relief in the 2010 Haiti Earthquake.[40][41]
Dr. Rajiv Shah became Administrator of USAID, shortly before the January 2010 earthquake in Haiti. In response, USAID and other agencies, began working to help Haiti recover and rebuild. Together with the international community and the Government of Haiti, Dr. Shah led USAID to help provide safer housing for almost 200,000 displaced Haitians; supported vaccinations for more than 1 million people; cleared more than 1.3 million cubic meters of the approximately 10 million cubic meters of rubble generated; helped more than 10,000 farmers double the yields of staples like corn, beans, and sorghum; and provided short-term employment to more than 350,000 Haitians, injecting more than $19 million into the local economy. USAID has provided nearly $42 million to help combat cholera, helping to decrease the number of cases requiring hospitalization and reduce the case fatality rate.
USAID has been a major partner in the United States Government's (USG) reconstruction and development effort in Iraq. As of June 2009[update], USAID has invested approximately $6.6 billion on programs designed to stabilize communities; foster economic and agricultural growth; and build the capacity of the national, local, and provincial governments to represent and respond to the needs of the Iraqi people.[42]
Rebuilding Iraq – C-SPAN 4 Part Series In June 2003, C-SPAN followed USAID Admin. Andrew Natsios as he toured Iraq. The special program C-SPAN produced aired over four nights.[43]
In 2008, the coca growers union affiliated with Bolivian President Evo Morales ejected the 100 employees and contractors from USAID working in the Chapare region, citing frustration with U.S.[44] efforts to persuade them to switch to growing unviable alternatives. From 1998 to 2003, Bolivian farmers could receive USAID funding for help planting other crops only if they eliminated all their coca, according to the Andean Information Network. Other rules, such as the requirement that participating communities declare themselves "terrorist-free zones" as required by U.S. law irritated people, said Kathryn Ledebur, director of the organization. "Eradicate all your coca and then you grow an orange tree that will get fruit in eight years but you don't have anything to eat in the meantime? A bad idea," she said. "The thing about kicking out USAID, I don't think it's an anti-American sentiment overall but rather a rejection of bad programs".
On September 19, 2011, Dr. Rajiv Shah, along with Dr. Jill Biden and Ad Council, launched the "FWD" campaign to raise awareness about the severe famine, war, and drought affecting over 13 million people in the Horn of Africa. Through televised and online PSAs, as well as social media initiatives, FWD encouraged Americans to spread awareness of the crisis, support the humanitarian organizations conducting the relief operations, and learn more about the solutions through President Barack Obama’s Feed the Future initiative to combat hunger and provide food security. Celebrities Geena Davis, Uma Thurman, Josh Hartnett, and Chanel Iman supported the campaign via a series of Public Service Announcements. Meanwhile, corporations like Cargill, General Mills, PepsiCo. and General Mills signed on to support the FWD campaign.[45]
USAID states that "U.S. foreign assistance has always had the twofold purpose of furthering America's foreign policy interests in expanding democracy and free markets while improving the lives of the citizens of the developing world." However, non-government organization watch groups have noted that as much as 40% of aid to Afghanistan has found its way back to donor countries through awarding contracts at inflated costs.[46]
Although USAID officially selects contractors on a competitive and objective basis, watch dog groups, politicians, foreign governments and corporations have occasionally accused the agency of allowing its bidding process to be unduly influenced by the political and financial interests of its current Presidential administration. Under the Bush administration, for instance, it emerged that all five implementing partners selected to bid on a $600 million Iraq reconstruction contract enjoyed close ties to the administration.[47][48]. Under the Obama Administration, it emerged that much money was being used to subsidize the building of Mosques in foreign lands.[49].
Some critics[50][51][52][53] say that the US government gives aid to reward political and military partners rather than to advance genuine social or humanitarian causes abroad. Another complaint[54] is that foreign aid is used as a political weapon for the U.S. to make other nations do things its way, an example given in 1990 when the Yemeni Ambassador to the United Nations, Abdullah Saleh al-Ashtal, voted against a resolution for a US-led coalition to use force against Iraq, U.S. Ambassador to the UN Thomas Pickering walked to the seat of the Yemeni Ambassador and retorted: "That was the most expensive No vote you ever cast". Immediately afterwards, USAID ceased operations and funding in Yemen.[55]
William Blum has said that in the 1960s and early 1970s USAID has maintained "a close working relationship with the CIA, and Agency officers often operated abroad under USAID cover."[56] The 1960s-era Office of Public Safety, a now-disbanded division of USAID, has been mentioned as an example of this, having served as a front for training foreign police in counterinsurgency methods.[57]
Folha de São Paulo, Brazil's largest newspaper, accused USAID of trying to influence political reform in Brazil in a way that would have purposely benefited right-wing parties. USAID spent $95,000 US in 2005 on a seminar in the Brazilian Congress to promote a reform whose aim was to push for legislation to punish party infidelity. According to USAID papers acquired by Folha under the Freedom of Information Act, the seminar was planned so as to coincide with the eve of talks in that country's Congress on a broad political reform. The papers read that although the "pattern of weak party discipline is found across the political spectrum, it is somewhat less true of parties on the liberal left, such as the [ruling] Worker's Party." The papers also expressed a concern about the "'indigenization' of the conference so that it is not viewed as providing a U.S. perspective." The event's main sponsor was the International Republican Institute.[58]
In December 2009, Alan Gross, a contractor for USAID, was arrested in Cuba. He and US government officials claim Gross was helping to deliver internet access to the Jewish community on the island, however the head of the Jewish community in Cuba, Adela Dworin, denies any knowledge of Gross and says that recognized international Jewish organizations have provided them with legal Internet connections. Cuban officials have said that Gross remains under investigation on suspicion of espionage and importing prohibited satellite communications equipment (known as a BGAN) to Cuban dissidents.[59] Gross was convicted by Cuban courts and sentenced to fifteen years in prison for bringing communications equipment onto the island nation.